Elements of a Film Production

What Do Producers Do?

• Development

• Pre-Production

• Production

• Post-Production

• Distribution

   What do Producers do? 
  
  

  In the film industry, a producer is the person who manages several aspects of the production process of a motion picture and strives to make sure that all the necessary elements are ready at the right time. Occasionally micromanaging and multitasking, most producers are involved in the production process since the early stages of development all the way to final phase of distribution

  Whereas the director is responsible for the creative and artistic elements of a film, the producer is responsible for enabling the director’s view by furnishing him with a crew, cast, equipment, props, and location. Here's a bit of their job descriptions:
  
  
  Buying the rights to a screenplay;
  Hiring a screenwriter to write a script;
  Renting equipment and returning it on time;
  Booking locations and negotiating prices with owners
  Having actors sign release forms;
  Signing insurance paperwork and contracts;
  Supervising budget and schedule;
  Making sure the cook arrives or ordering a take-out.

  Development

  The first phase of a movie production is called development. This is the period in which the screenplay is written. At this point in time, a producer may or may not be already attached to the project. If the screenplay is a spec script, then the screenwriter is writing it on his own, without any guarantee that he will ever sell it. If the writer is in a work-for-hire system, then he's getting some money for his time.
  The development phase can be the shortest or the longest phase in a production. In The Curious Case of Benjamin Button, for instance, the short story in which the movie is based on was published in 1922, with the rights for a movie being first acquired in the mid-1980s. Between this first purchase and beginning of the official pre-production, several directors and stars were attached to the project. In 2008 the movie was first released with David Fincher as the director and Brad Pitt in the main role.
  This lengthy period before pre-production starts is often called "development hell."

  Pre-Production

  For pre-production to start, producers must commit themselves to a project – a screenplay. Once greenlit, the script furnishes the framework for the production. Location scouting, casting, equipment rental, storyboard, and shoot script all happen in accordance to the screenplay.
  One of the main tasks for the producer during this phase is to secure funds for the production to progress to the next level. Serious student filmmakers must understand that any film production costs money. Meals for the crew is often the biggest expense to young filmmakers. For Hollywood studios, on the other hand, their hugest expense is often the star's salary, which is higher than the entire crew's combined. Equipment rental, contracts, permits, and insurance are also costly for the independent producer and should not be ignored.
  Creatively and artistically, many decisions must be made. First and foremost, a director must be chosen; he or she will be in charge of creative decisions from that moment onward unless fired. Writing the shooting script is huge responsibility in this phase. The director must be extremely familiar with the screenplay to the point that he knows what and how he wants to shoot the movie. The shooting script is a more detailed description of the shots and scenes of the movie.
  
  

   Production

  The main part of the production phase is called principal photography – which is the moment when camera rolls to record the actors and make the movie. The purpose of pre-production – all the procedure applied and decisions made during this phase – is to make everything during principal photography go as smooth as possible.
  Principal photography is the most expensive part on a film production. Major Hollywood producers are paying $1500 a minute. This amount accounts chiefly for cast’s and crew’s salary. Student filmmakers may be shooting at the vicinity of $100 a day, used mainly for food. Ergo principal photography in any film must be fast and efficient. Achieving such a feat is an art in itself. The director and his crew must come together as a well-oiled machine.
  Notoriously, what most stalls principal photography is lighting and camerawork. The inexperienced filmmaker may find this assertion ludicrous, but professionals know better. This is especially true for student filmmakers, the reason being twofold. First, students can’t afford all the nice toys as found in the studios, thus they face worst challenges. Secondly, studio movies have so much money that the consensus amongst producers is to “fix in post.” Cinematography at that high-end has become sloppy.
  
  

  Post-Production

  Normally, post-production only starts when principal photography ends, but they may overlap. The bulk of post-production consists of reviewing the footage and assembling the movie – editing. The time editing takes to complete is directly proportional to the amount of footage recorded and how good camera notes are.
  An infamous example is the case of Apocalypse Now. Shooting indiscriminately, sometimes with eight cameras rolling, Francis Ford Coppola ended principal photography with tons of footage that were good for nothing. His editor, Walter Murch, who started working before Coppola was done, spent two years in the editing room figuring out how to piece this epic together. Camera notes help in the sense that they tell the editor where to look and what to look for.

   

Film vs. Video

During the first century of photography and moviemaking, everything was shot on film – a celluloid material whose light-sensitive surface could record lasting images. Film was good because it was the only option. And during that first century, it did a fantastic job of recording those masterpieces that we love and treasure, like Gone With the Wind, Citizen Kane, and The Godfather.

However, as technology advances, digital filmmaking gains dominance and poses a threat to the film hegemony. The Oscar-winner Social Network (2010), for instance, was shot on the Red One, a video camera.

Why Shoot Film

Film is still preferred by most filmmakers because this is the tradition and the technology they understand. Other two big advantages of using film are (1) depth of- ield and (2) broad exposure latitude.

Depth of Field

When shooting 35mm film, shallower depth of filed is a given. This means that creating areas in the frame that are soft focus or blurry is easier, and filmmakers love this to direct the audience's attention.

Exposure Latitude

Wikipedia defines exposure latitude as "the extent to which a light-sensitive material can be overexposed or underexposed and still achieve an acceptable result."
Basically, what you have to remember is that film has broader exposure latitude than video. This means that underexposed and overexposed areas are rendered better on film than on digital media. For instance, on video, a corner of the frame with little light could go completely black, whereas on film is would still show details.
This is important because cinematographers play with light, so a broader exposure latitude medium offers them more opportunity. It's like a painter who has several paint tubes with all the colors of the rainbow (film), as opposed to another painter who only has the primary colors (video). However, needless to say, technology is constantly advancing, and the gap is decreasing.

Why Shoot Video

Video is spreading quickly. As technology evolves, video will soon become the industry standard. It's impossible to know when, but the push towards it has already begun. The main reasons to choose video are (1) workflow, (2) price, and (3) reproducibility.

Workflow

Video can really speed things up. With film, prior to the shoot, someone has to load the magazine in a light-safe area. After the shoot, the film must be developed, processed, and digitized (turned into a digital file in a computer). Film is digitized because most editing are now done in computers, using programs like Avid or Final Cut Pro.
If you shoot video, you can skip these steps. You record straight into an SD card or hard drive. The footage is then unloaded in a computer or separate hard drives. The footage does not need to be processed; you can watch it on the set within seconds after taking it. 

Price

Shooting film is expensive. A 400-foot role of 16mm stock costs about $100. 400 feet of 16mm film is enough for 11 minutes of footage. That means that, when shooting 16mm, you spend $100 for each 11 minutes. But feature films are shot on 35mm, and they shoot way more than just two hours of footage.
With digital filmmaking, the preferred media is SD cards, which in theory can be used endlessly over and over again in different projects.

Reproducibility

Video is also convenient because of its reproducibility. Just like files in your computer, video is digital, so it can be inexpensively copied over and over again without any loss in quality whatsoever.

Film Directing

Principles of Directing

The film director’s primary task is to interpret the screenplay and translate it visually. He is the creative mind that chooses the aesthetical and technical specifications to be implemented in his vision. To succeed in this mission, he is involved from the early stages of pre-production all the way to the final phase of post.
Francois Truffaut’s Day for Night (1973) is perhaps the movie that best romanticizes the job and life of a director on and outside of the set during a film production. Their amazement and frustrations are subject matters featured in Truffaut’s Academy Award-winning film.
Even though directors must oversee the several stages of production, during photography, everything could get exponentially hectic. Their personal lives – family, friends, and affairs – are shoved aside to pave way for the film production. Weekends and holidays too. Everything revolves around the production schedule. At daytime, they shoot. At night, they rewrite the script. During breaks, they rehearse. Lights, costumes, decor, props, camera, actors are all supervised by the director, who’s often multitasking and micromanaging all of those. Directing movies requires extensive command of the craft. It takes decades to master and centuries to forget.

Traits of a Director

The director must be a tyrant and a democrat, a dreamer and a realist, a rebel and a loyalist. He has to give orders and follow them. He has to demand and obey. He has to be the most snobbish and most sociable person on set. He is the manager, the judge, the president. A friend. He is all of those and much more.
During a film production, the director assumes very many roles. Besides mastering the production process and storytelling techniques, he has to be aware of cultural and political issues that surround his movie. He has to be sensible of possible implications that any elements in his picture may cause.
Well-rounded, the director must know, for instance, that the color red means danger and emergency in America, whereas in China it connotes courage, loyalty, honor, success, fortune, fertility, and happiness.
In the exceptional example of Psycho (1960), Alfred Hitchcock foresaw the encroaching revolution of the 1960s and took advantage of it. Being entrepreneurial, he purchased the rights to the novel of same title and even bought copies to obscure the ending. Hitchcock was so sure that the picture would be a hit that he even deferred his director’s salary in order to get some support by the studios. By noticing the approaching revolution, he knew he could have Janet Leigh in her underwear in the bedroom and naked in the shower. The picture became the highest grossing film of Hitchcock's career, a box office triumph, earning $11,200,000.

Training

The essential training to be a film director usually begins at a very early age, watching movies. Aside from the very first ones, all great filmmakers were once kids enamored with moving pictures. Not just a hobby but a full-time love affair. As the kids grew up, they refined their vision and hearing to scrutinize the components inherent to the movies they watched. They observed camerawork, editing, acting, score… everything.
The next step would be actual hands on a film camera and shooting. Decades ago, making short movies with friends and learning the necessary skills by trial and error were considered a valuable method to become a filmmaker. But times have changed. The competition is much bigger now, and digital has ruined many youngsters.
With a generation that grows up watching YouTube, the discernment between good and awful is shattered by a criterion that values number of hits over technical excellence. Shaky cameras, trite stories, squeaky voices, and porch lighting are among the many problems caused by the preponderance of digital cameras.
Nowadays, attending a film school is a wise option to become a filmmaker. There, students will have keen insight on all the levels of production and the many professionals involved to make a movie, plus the chance to make friends that share the same passion. Networking.

Blocking

Blocking was originally a theatre term that refers to the positioning and movement of the actors in the stage. An essential part of rehearsal, blocking is necessary for a smooth performance.

from wikipedia The term derives from the practice of 19th century theatre directors such as Sir W. S. Gilbert who worked out the staging of a scene on a miniature stage using blocks to represent each of the actors.

 In cinema, camera and lights are added to the equation. Blocking a motion picture involves the precise synchrony and movement of the actors in relation to camera and lights. The director is the one responsible for blocking. He must guide the cast to accommodate his vision for the arrangement or composition of the frame. The more “trained” actors are during blocking, the faster principal photography will be.

Sketch the Scene

One efficient way to block actors and camera is to use drawings. Hand-drawn pictures are fine, although computers make the job easier. Floor plans and storyboards are often combined for a faster process but also to help the crew visualize everything needed for the shoot to happen.

Floor plans are used to design the layout of a scene with actors and camera positions. Floor plans are quite convenient when shooting a scene with an elaborate setup. Too many actors and ambitious camera movements (dollies, cranes) constitute a good definition of “elaborate setup.”

Storyboards are also common. They are a collection of frames that tells the story visually. The frames illustrate the more important shots in the movie. Storyboards are quite convenient when the directors is explaining exactly what type of composition he desires.

Attention to Body Language

Deciding on the positions of the subject and camera are only the first and second steps of blocking. The third is body language - posture. A director must pay close attention to how actors use their bodies and what is signified by their postures and gestures. Quite regularly, professional directors instruct actors on how to move their hands and legs and eyes. It is attention to detail that separates the men from the boys and the women from the girls.

In the frame above, you can see two actors with contrasting postures. Angelina Jolie, impeccable, holds herself straight, with air of nobility. Her back does not touch the chair. Her hands are held in front of her bosom – we can tell this is not comfortable.

At the opposite end of the spectrum, we have Johnny Depp, slouched in his chair, legs crossed, supporting his arms. He looks tired and uncouth. But not Angelina. She's refined, elegant, sophisticated... A lot information is conveyed by posture. Keep that in mind.

Coverage

The initial recording of a scene is usually done with a master shot, a shot wide enough to capture the action in its entirety. But screening the whole scene from a single wide shot would be boring, not to mention all the detail that would be missed.
Ergo crafting a film involves recording a scene from different camera angle using different shot  sizeto emphasize important elements of the film, such as a gun in someone’s hand or a tear in someone’s eye. This use of subsequent camera setups is known as coverage. Coverage is important not only to keep things dynamic and exciting within the scene, but also to ease the editing process of the movie.
Observe the example of coverage below from The Thomas Crown Affair (1968). All the shots combined together make the scene very interesting, especially as it contains very elaborate compositions and as it focuses on character’s facial expressions.

Among the several types of shots, we find in the example above long shots, medium shots, close-ups, ECUs, high-angles, inserts, and reactions. In the movie, the scene is practically silent. Yet the amazing coverage is able to convey emotions and tensions.
It is one of the director’s tasks to create a shot list, and thus define how the coverage will be. Before principal photography starts, the director should know where the camera will be and what or who it will shoot. A movie with poor coverage always feels awkward, for it usually impedes the editor from accomplishing the much praised invisible editing.

Shooting Script

The shooting script is more elaborate, precise, overwritten version of the screenplay. Unlike what common sense may suggest, the shooting script is not written by the screenwriter. It is written by the director alongside his cinematographer, while both discuss their ideas and shot plan desired for the movie.
In broad terms, the main difference between the screenplay and the shooting script is that the screenplay is a selling tool, whereas the shooting script is a production tool.
When a screenwriter pens the screenplay, he is trying to sell, above all else, the story. Therefore, he has to create a smooth read with a harmonious flow, otherwise his screenplay and hard work end up in the wastebasket. Screenplays should contain little to no direction whatsoever. Directing the movie and calling the shots is not the writer’s task; it is the director’s.
Ideally, right after a screenplay is purchased, the movie enters pre-production. The director then will alter the story as he deems fits and eventually craft the shooting script. The shooting script is normally broken into shots, featuring precise cinematography terminology such as close-ups, dolly in, overexposed. The idea here is to inform the crew what is going on. Before principal photography starts, the shooting script will be divided into dates, so everyone knows what is being shot when.
Although terrible to read, the shooting script is essential to a complex production such as the one of feature movies. The goal is to let all the crew members know what they will need to bring or arrange beforehand.

Documentary Filmmaking

Contrary to cinema which tells stories that are usually pure fabrications of someone’s imagination, documentary film making is concerned with the exposure and analyses of real facts and historical events.

Even though documentary cinema explores actualities, not all documentaries present the absolute truth a hundred percent of the time. Filmmakers, like any other artists, are both privileged and burdened by the power of manipulation. As such, they are blessed and cursed by the possibility to bend the truth.


The Structure of Documentaries
At its core, documentary film making is an opinion former and a trendsetter. Its structure is built as to allow the filmmaker freedom to manipulate and persuade. Even the purest directors fall prey on their position and the liberty of the medium, and they end up being biased enough to impose their own perspectives onto the world.
Documentary filmmakers have the following weapons in their arsenal for persuasion:

Voice of God: This is the voice-over heard in the movie. The pretentious reference to the almighty is due to the influential force the voice-over has in documentaries. In narrative cinema, voice-over offers exposition and personal comments. On documentaries, however, voice-over is used to state unquestionable veracity. If you hear the sentence “There are only 80 pandas left in the entire world” spoken by a deep voice, you will believe it. That’s the reason why most narrators are men and many from Britain – apparently the British accent is more persuasive than American English.

Documentation: To make a point convincingly, the filmmaker must present evidence from legitimate sources. The evidence is the documentation. A letter from your Uncle Bob carries less legitimacy than an article from the New York Times, hence selecting sources is paramount for documentaries. Newspaper articles, bank statements, government records, surveillance footage are all fair game for the filmmaker because they carry the weight of truth. For the most part, at least. Occasionally, directors may intentionally misuse documents and take it out of context to mislead the audience.

Interviews: Much like documentation, interviews are common on documentaries and equally necessary as sources. In the documentary Super Size Me, since the movie director, Morgan Spur lock, has no official knowledge over heart health, he has to consult with cardiologist Stephen Siegel, MD, who becomes his expert witness.

Expert Witness: An expert witness is anyone that has great knowledge on the subject that they are testifying on. It requires no degree but vast experience. An illiterate farmer from Texas could be considered an expert witness on a documentary about cattle manure used to fertilize soil. As a general rule, the audience is much more likely to listen to an expert witness than a random John Doe from the streets. Expert witnesses don’t always have to be interviewed on camera. Their statements or archival footage also carry great weight.

Script Writing Example & Screenwriting Tips

It's easy to feel intimidated by the thought of writing a screenplay. The rules! The formatting! The binding! Don't let the seemingly endless parade of screenwriting elements scare you away from writing your first script. Since a familiarity with the basics of the craft is half the battle, The Writers Store has created this handy screenplay example and overview on how to write a screenplay to help you get up to speed on screenwriting fundamentals.

 

source  :  https://www.writersstore.com/how-to-write-a-screenplay-a-guide-to-scriptwriting/

Light Four Common Types of Film

Beyond the camera and lens, the most important technical and creative skill you can have is learning to use and shape light. A good place to start is knowing the tools you have at your disposal.

Know your fixtures

Before we get into the types of film lights, let’s take a quick look at the two most common types of fixtures.

Open Faced

An open faced lighting fixture is used to create hard light that casts hard shadows. It is not much more than a housing and reflector for the bulb, and provides nothing in between the bulb and the subject.
The commonly known 800W “Redhead” and 2000W “Blonde” are examples of open faced video lights.

Fresnel

A Fresnel lens is a special type of lens that is divided into concentric circles, resulting in a much thinner lens than a conventional lens of the same power. This lens evens out the light and allows for the beam to be varied from flood to spot by changing the distance between the lamp/reflector unit and the lens.

Practicals

A practical light is considered any light source that will appear in the scene such as a table lamp, any visible interior light sources, even a hand held flashlight. Often existing bulbs are swapped out for those of different wattage or color temperature depending on the needed effect and desired contrast ratios within the scene.

Performance Factors

CRI

CRI stands for Color Rendering Index. It refers to the ability of a light source to properly and faithfully reveal the color of an object compared to an ideal or natural light source. The highest possible CRI is 100 and is attributed to a perfect black body (a tungsten light source is a perfect black body, as is the sun).

Color Temperature

Color temperature refers to the “color” of white light emitted by a light source based on that radiated by a perfect black body at a given temperature measured in degrees Kelvin.
White light can be warm (yellow/orange) or cool (blue) and our eyes automatically adjust. However, the color temperature of light sources and especially the mixing of different color temperatures becomes very important when designing film lighting.
Temperature Source
1,700 K: Match flame
1,850 K: Candle flame, sunset/sunrise
2,700–3,300 K: Incandescent lamps
4,100–4,150 K: Moonlight
5,000 K: Horizon daylight
5,500–6,000 K: Vertical daylight
6,500 K: Daylight, overcast
15,000–27,000 K Clear blue poleward sky

Know your light sources

Tungsten (Quartz Halogen/Tungsten Halogen)

Tungsten light sources are basically related to the same type of incandescent filament bulbs which until recently were common in homes and offices everywhere.

The key difference is that these use bulbs that take advantage of what is known as the halogen cycle. The pressurized halogen gas inside the bulb helps to redeposit evaporated tungsten metal back onto the filament. The glass bulb is made from a much stronger quartz or aluminosilicate glass. The lamps operate at a higher temperature than normal incandescent tungsten bulbs, and so they can achieve a higher color temperature, and higher luminous efficiency. They naturally produce a warm light, but blue color correction gels can be used to simulate daylight.
Tungsten lighting fixtures can be open faced or Fresnel up to about 20kW in power and are dimmable. They produce a continuous spectrum of light from near ultraviolet to infrared, producing near perfect color rendition.
When dimmed tungsten lights become warmer in color, so gels are needed to correct the color temperature.

Uses

Tungsten lighting is usually used to light interiors as it matches the warm light associated with domestic incandescent lighting.

Advantages

Near perfect color rendition
Low cost
Does not use mercury like CFLs (fluorescent) or mercury vapor lights
Better color temperature than standard tungsten
Longer life than a conventional incandescent
Instant on to full brightness, no warm up time, and it is dimmable 

Disadvantages

Extremely hot
High power requirement
The lamp is sensitive to oils and cannot be touched
The bulb is capable of blowing and sending hot glass shards outward. A screen or layer of glass on the outside of the lamp can protect users.

HMI

HMI stands for Hydrargyrum medium-arc iodide and is a metal-halide gas discharge medium arc-length lamp.
A HMI bulb contains mercury vapor mixed with metal halides. An electrical arc between two electrodes excites the mercury vapor and metal halides resulting in a very high light output and luminous efficiency. HMI lamps are capable of between 85 and 108 lumens per watt, up to four times that of conventional incandescent lamps.
The specific mix of gases in a HMI bulb is designed to emit a 6000K color temperature light, closely matching natural sunlight. Electronic ballasts produce a flicker free light due to their very high frequency operation. Pulse width modulation can be used to dim HMI lights.

Uses

HMI’s are often used when high output is required and when recreating or augmenting sunlight shining into interiors, or for exterior lighting. Powerful HMI’s can be used to light large areas.

Advantages

Very high light output
Higher efficiency than incandescent lamps
High color temperature

Disadvantages

Relatively high cost, but this is balanced out by increased output
High power requirement
Requires an external ballast for arc ignition (up to 70,000 volts)
Dimming is possible only to about 50% and the color temperature increases in conjunction with dimming, thus creating a bluer light
If dropped while lit an HMI bulb can explode releasing super hot quartz glass and mercury vapor

Fluorescent 

A fluorescent lamp uses the excitement of low pressure mercury vapor to produce ultra-violet light, in turn causing a phosphor coating on the inside of the glass tube to glow giving off light in the visible spectrum.
A fluorescent light is much more efficient than an incandescent light, and is capable of generating up to 100 lumens per watt, similar to the output of HMI.
The spectrum of light emitted is different to an incandescent source and depends on the mix of phosphors used. However a CRI up to 99 can be achieved. The color temperature of a fluorescent can vary also from 2700K to 6500K depending on the phosphor mix.

Uses 

Fluorescent film lighting is most often used in fixtures containing banks of tubes. These tubes are normally either tungsten or daylight color balanced, or the tubes can be mixed within the fixture to vary the overall color mix of the light. They produce a soft and even light and can be used in relative close proximity to the subject. Fluorescent lighting is often used to light interiors and has the advantage of being more compact and cooler in operation than tungsten or HMI lighting.

Advantages

High efficiency
Low power requirement
Low cost
Long lamp life
Cool
Capable of soft even lighting over a large area
Lightweight

 Disadvantages

Flicker can be a problem with domestic fluorescent installations not intended for photographic use. Those designed for film use have electronic ballasts and produce flicker free light.
Fluorescent lights for film use have a high CRI, however the use of domestic tubes may have a far lower CRI and poor color rendition.

LED

LED stands for light emitting diode and is a solid-state semiconductor device. Only recently, LED’s of sufficient power have become available to make practical LED film lighting possible. LED’s are extremely efficient but are still limited in overall light output when compared to any of the other light sources.
LED’s are by nature monochromatic, producing only a single wavelength of light. So the challenge of LED lighting has been in creating a full spectrum white light. This can be done in two ways, either by combining the light of red, green and blue emitting LED’s, or with white LED’s whereby the visible white light is actually created by phosphors that are excited by an ultra-violet emitting LED.
LED lights can be daylight or tungsten balanced, sometimes switchable or having variable color temperature. Some have variable color through the entire RGB spectrum, which is something not possible with any other lighting technology. The CRI rating of LED lighting can be over 90.

Uses

LED’s are becoming more and more common on film sets. They can easily be battery powered making them very portable and requiring no separate ballasts or heavy cabling. Panels made from LED lights can be small and compact, or large for a variety of situations.
LED’s are also powering more traditional Fresnel style lamp heads such as the Arri L-series. Overall power outputs are on the rise, which is good news.

Advantages

Soft, even lighting
Pure light without UV-artifacts
High efficiency
Low power consumption, can be battery powered
Excellent dimming by means of pulse width modulation control
Long lifespan
Environmentally friendly
Insensitive to shock
No risk of explosion

Disadvantages

High cost. LED’s are currently still expensive for their total light output.

Luminous Efficiency Compared

Tungsten Quartz Halogen:   Up to +/- 35lm/W
HMI:                                        Up to +/- 115lm/W
Fluorescent:                           Up to +/- 100lm/W
LED:                                        Up to +/- 150lm/W

There is no Winner

When all is said and done, all of these lights have a specific purpose, and you’re likely to see them all on any film set. Not one of these lights can be used for every purpose and any lighting kit list would be severely compromised if any of these were missing.

Big HMI’s are going nowhere. When you need to manufacture sunlight, the only way to do it is with big power hungry HMI’s. There is simply no other way to generate that amount of light. Yes, this means generator trucks and added crew, but when it comes to lighting big exteriors none of this is about to change. Even on a conservative job I would suggest having a 2K and 5K HMI available.
Tungsten light is cheap and is still the workhorse of interior lighting. LED Fresnel technology may at some point reach a practical equivalence but even with Arri’s most powerful L-series, it’s not going to replace the medium to high output Tungsten lamp heads soon.

LED’s are also a permanent addition to the lighting department. For space restricted setups and the sheer portability that battery power affords these lights have become indispensible.
Fluorescents provide a lovely soft even light. They offer higher output than LED panels and can be larger in size, although LED panels can of course be tiled. Fluorescents are also very cost effective.
That covers the most common types of film lighting, but it is only the beginning of the story. Creating light is one thing, but shaping and controlling it is the most important skill of all to learn.

CINEMATOGRAPHY CAFE

Cinematography is the act of capturing photographic images in space through the use of a number of controllable elements.  These include the quality of the film stock, the manipulation of the camera lens, framing, scale and movement.  Some theoreticians and film historians (Bordwell, Thompson) would also include duration, or the length of the shot, but we discuss the long take in our editing page.  Cinematography is a function of the relationship between the camera lens and a light source, the focal length of the lens, the camera’s position and its capacity for motion.

THE CAMERA LENS

compiled by Alexander Bewkes & Trey Hunsucker

Deep Focus

Depth of field is the measure that can be applied to the area in focus within the frame.  Deep focus, which requires a small aperture and lots of light, means that the foreground, middleground and background of the frame remain in focus.  In the image below, from Citizen Kane (Orson Welles, 1941), the extended depth of field gives the frame a 3-dimensional quality, showing multiple planes of action at once.  It also allows the filmmaker to demonstrate the largesse of Kane’s dinner party and his personality.  The ability to achieve deep focus was the result of a technological development in the lens in the late 193os and its adoption as a discursive mode is largely attributed to Welles.

Shallow Focus

Shallow focus is a function of a narrow depth of field and it implies that only one plane of the frame will remain sharp and clear (usually the foreground).  In contemporary cinema, shallow focus is often combined with deep space for artistic purposes or to demonstrate subjectivity.  It is typically a feature of the close-up.  The following images, from Rossellini’s Rome Open City (1945) and Sofia Coppola’s Marie Antoinette (2006), respectively, are demonstrative of shallow focus.  Each signals to a pivotal moment in the character’s life – Don Pietro awaits his execution and Marie Antoinette approaches the alter at her wedding.

Racking Focus

Filmmakers can change the focus of the lens to a subject in the background from the foreground or vice vera. This can be used to shift the audience’s attention or to point out a significant relationship between the two subjects. In this sequence from Wes Anderson’s Rushmore (1998), racking focus is used to show the miserable relationship between Herman Blume and his wife.

Zoom Shot

The zoom shot occurs when a filmmaker changes the focal length of the lens in the middle of a shot. We appear to get closer or further away from the subject when this technique is used. In this sequence from Rob Reiner’s Stand by Me (1986), the zoom is used on the writer to emphasize his newfound inspiration for a story.

FILM SPEED

Rate

The standard rate for a film is 24 frames per second. If more frames are added to this second the film will seem to slow down. The film will speed up if there are less than 24 frames per second. Doug Liman shoots this sequence from Swingers (1996) as a reference to Reservoir Dogs. By shooting it in 12 frames per second and then speeding it up to 24, he gives the group of guys a unique look as they leave their poker game to start their night out.

FRAMING

compiled by Trey Hunsucker & Daniel Hurley
Image A:
Orson Welles includes strange people and objects in the frame to reinforce the unsettling quality of his narrative.  The blind woman has no role in the story but her presence in the foreground as Vargas telephones his wife is vaguely disturbing.  Perhaps she serves as a subconscious link or an uncanny suggestion (for Mike and the spectator) that Susan is unsafe.

Mike Vargas telephones his wife.

Image B: Likewise, the inclusion of this sign and its message serve to increase suspense by heightening the viewer’s awareness of the possibility of evil lurking nearby.

Vargas telephones his wife from a general store.

Angle of Framing

When filming from below or above the subject of the frame, it is known as a low or high angle. Filming from different angles is a way to show the relationship between the camera’s point of view and the subject of the frame. In this sequence from Sofia Coppola’s The Virgin Suicides (1999), Lux wakes up the morning after homecoming lying in the middle of a football field. The high angle highlights the desolate field and her feeling of abandonment by Trip Fontaine.

Level of Framing

This refers to the height at which the camera is positioned in a given shot. Different camera heights are often used to display or exaggerate differences in points of view.  In this scene from No Country for Old Men, as Anton Chigurh approaches his victim, the low level position of the camera creates suspense by suggesting the perspective of an unsuspecting character on the ground.

Canted Framing

Canted framing is where the camera is not level but tilted. It is used in action films and other films with lots of movement. It may suggest danger or disorder. In The Borne Identity, canted framing is used just for this purpose; as the official moves toward Borne, the titled frame signifies the start of an action sequence.

Following Shot/Reframing

A following shot is a shot that follows a character with pans, tilts, and tracking. It is unobtrusive and focuses all of the viewer’s attention on the character. In The Godfather, the camera follows Fredo as he breaks up a party. As the camera follows him, we see his growing frustration with his brother and the slow-moving partygoers.

Point of View Shot

A point of view shot places the camera where the viewer would imagine a characters gaze to be. This is a technique of continuity editing, because it allows us to see what the character sees without being obtrusive. In No Country for Old Men, we see a trail of blood from what seems like Anton Chigurh’s perspective. This gives the audience information about how Anton determines the whereabouts of his enemy.

Wide-Angle Lens

Wide-angle lenses distort the edges of a frame to emphasize the amount of space in a shot. They are used in enclosed areas where space is limited. In Signs, a wide-angle lens is used for the extreme close-up of Graham Hess before a flashback of his wife’s death.

SCALE

compiled by Charles Lennon

Extreme Long Shot

An extreme long shot is when the scale of what is being seen is tiny.  In this sequence from Peter Jackson’s The Lord of the Rings: The Fellowship of the Ring (2001), the extreme long shot is being used as an establishing shot as Gandalf (Ian McKellen) enters the Shire.  It was most likely shot from a crane or a helicopter, and it shows the viewer much of the fantasy world that is Middle Earth.

Long Shot

A long shot is when the scale of what is being seen is small.  In this sequence from Kathryn Bigelow’s The Hurt Locker (2008), Sergeant Thompson (Guy Pearce) takes up most of the screen when upright, and then less when he is knocked down due to the explosion.  The entire background is dust and debris from the bomb that detonated, and the scale of the long shot gives the viewer the image that Thompson was very close to the point of detonation.  This is important to see because the explosion ends up killing him.

Medium Long Shot

A medium long shot is when what is being viewed takes up almost the entire height of the screen.  In this sequence from Sergio Leone’s The Good, the Bad, and the Ugly (1967), Blondie (Clint Eastwood) is seen staring down Tuco (Eli Wallach), and Sentenza (Lee Van Cleef) right before they duel.  Blondie’s gun is visible which is important for the viewers to see for a duel sequence.  This is why the medium long shot was used for most westerns.

Medium Close-Up

A medium close-up is when what is being viewed is large and takes up most of the screen.  In this sequence from Frank Darabont’s The Shawshank Redemption (1994), Red (Morgan Freeman) is seen from the chest up sitting in front of the parole board.  He is fed up with the process of parole and is making a long speech about the penal system while he is just about the only object in view on the screen.

Close-Up

A close-up is when what is being viewed is quite large and takes up the entire screen, such as a person’s head.  In this sequence from Stanley Kubrick’s A Clockwork Orange (1972), the face of Alex (Malcolm McDowell) is practically all that can be seen on the screen.  He has an evil smirk on his face as he sits in the milk bar while the eery music of the opening credits still plays.  The close-up is the perfect way to introduce Alex because by simply looking into his face, the viewer can see just how terrible he is.

Extreme Close-Up

An extreme close-up is when what is being viewed is very large, usually this is a part of someone’s face.  In this sequence from Martin Scorsese’s Gangs of New York (2002), the camera shoots an extreme close-up of Bill the Butcher’s (Daniel Day-Lewis) left eye.  It is made of glass and the pupil is in the shape of an eagle.  Bill has this eye because he considers himself a patriot and a native to America, unlike the Irish immigrants who he is about to fight in the battle of the Five Points.

MOVEMENT

compiled by Ryan Smith

Crane Shot

A crane shot is achieved by mounting a camera on some type of crane device. The weight of the camera is countered by free weights at one end where the camera-man (or sometimes a remote control) can control the movement of the shot. Crane shots are often of practical use to the the filmmaker when a scene demands a shot that a normal camera person cannot take, as seen in the photo below.

A filmmaker using a crane to get the desired shot.

The crane enables the filmmaker to move the camera through the air in virtually any direction. Crane shots are often long takes with anywhere from medium to extreme long framing. In the selected clip below, the use of a crane shot with medium framing in David Dobkin’s Wedding Crashers (2005) allows the audience to feel as if they are floating above Jeremy Grey (Vince Vaughn) and Gloria Cleary (Isla Fisher) descend down the steps in the Cleary family foyer. Towards the end of the shot, the filmmaker is able to incorporate a third character, Christopher Walken that previously existed in offscreen space.

SteadiCam Shot

Steadicam shots are used by filmmakers, commonly, for motion tracking shots. A steadicam device is essentially a harness that uses the camera person’s body as the support device for the camera. Steadicam was a novel way to shot a scene as it isolates the movement of the camera person from the camera. Stabilizing mechanisms counter the movements of the camera person to eliminate the inevitable imperfections present in handheld shooting (i.e. shaking).

A filmmaker uses a steadicam at a sporting event.

A filmmaker can adjust the amount to which the camera person’s movement is isolated from the camera. In the following clip from I Am Legend (2007), Francis Lawrence uses an imperfect steadicam shot for the majority of the sequence. The use of steadicam, here, is to heighten the audience’s feeling of Robert Neville’s (Will Smith) surprise when one of the mannequins he has set up around a post-apocalyptic Manhattan has moved.

Pan

A pan shot is a camera movement which follows the action, or reveals previously unframed space, as it moves horizontally. Pans occur in varying speeds for dramatic purposes. Although the most basic concept of a panning shot adheres to the movement below, a pan can also incorporate zooms, tracking of action shots and/or movement of the camera base itself.

The motion of the camera during a panning shot.

In the following climactic clip from Miles Forman’s One Flew Over the Cuckoo’s Nest (1975), a tracking pan follows the action of Chief (Will Sampson) as he breaks free from the mental institution that imprisons him. As the camera moves from right to left the frame changes from showing the dark mental institution to facing out a window where the sunlight (resembling a new day of freedom) is just breaking on the horizon.

Tilt

A tilt shot is essentially a vertical pan, where the camera moves up and down rather than from one side to another. Tilt shots often heighten an audience’s level of suspense as they are unaware what the shot will uncover. Tilt shots, like pans, serve to reveal some previously unseen space to the viewer. These shots may include zooms, tracking of action shots and/or movement of the camera base itself.
In the following clip from David Fincher’s Fight Club (1999), a tilt shot is used to reveal Tyler Durden (Brad Pitt) to the audience. Simultaneously, the tilting shot connotes that Durden is in control of the situation (literally above Marla Singer, as depicted by Helena Bonham Carter). If Durden does not keep Singer awake, she will succumb to the drugs she may have overdosed.

Tracking Shot

A tracking shot follows action through space in a variety of directions. As the action, or character, moves along the screen the tracking shot enables the audience to feel as if they are moving with the action through space. This sensation is achieved by mounting the camera on a track, dolly, or moving vehicle to smoothly follow the action along a choreographed course. Recently, steadicam shots (see above) have made it possible for filmmakers to track more spontaneous action. Tracking shots were originally called Cabiria shots after they were first used by Giovanni Pastrone in Cabiria (1914).

A camera is mounted on a track used by a filmmaker to follow the action through space.

In the following clip from Old School (2003), directed by Todd Phillips, a tracking shot is achieved by placing the camera in the passenger seat of a moving vehicle. This particular tracking shot follows an inebriated and nude Frank Ricard (Will Ferrell) as he goes streaking.

Whip Pan

A whip pan follows all the same rules as a normal pan. However, a whip pan involves a quicker movement that may momentarily blur the images onscreen. Whip pans are often abrupt and imply a rapid unfolding events (i.e. action movies).
The following whip pan from Martin Scorsese’s Taxi Driver (1976) doubles as a point of view shot. In this clip, Travis Bickle (Robert De Niro) quickly adjusts the focus of his attention from a roadside distraction back to the street ahead of him.
source
https://collegefilmandmediastudies.com/cinematography/